A practical Guide for Experts
in Emerging and Developing Economies.

Contents
Abbreviations and Acronyms ...............................................................................................................8
1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................13
2 Co- and Trigeneration Technologies and their Application ............................................18
2.1 Introduction and Definitions .......................................................................................................19
2.2 Cogeneration Technologies ...........................................................................................................23
2.3 Trigeneration Technologies ..........................................................................................................23
2.3.1 Absorption Technology ........................................................................................................24
2.3.2 Adsorption Technology ........................................................................................................25
2.4 Gas Engines ...........................................................................................................................................26
2.5 Steam Turbines .....................................................................................................................................29
2.6 Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) .......................................................................................................31
2.7 Fuel Cells .................................................................................................................................................33
2.8 Bio Sources and Co-/Trigeneration Applications ..............................................................34
2.9 Solid Biomass .......................................................................................................................................34
2.10 Bioethanol and Biodiesel (Liquid Biomass)............................................................................34
2.11 Biogas ........................................................................................................................................................35
2.12 Networks and Thermal Storage Systems for Heating and Cooling ...........................37
2.13 Overview and Evaluation of Co- and Trigeneration Technologies ...........................40
2.14 Areas of Application for Co- and Trigeneration Technologies ....................................41
3 Relevance of Co- and Trigeneration for Development Cooperation ............................46
3.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................................46
3.2 Effects of Co- and Trigeneration ................................................................................................47
3.3 Contribution to International Policy Goals ..........................................................................47
3.3.1 International Energy and Climate Efficiency Policy Goals ...............................47
3.3.2 International Development Goals ...................................................................................48
3.4 Contribution of Co- and Trigeneration to German International
and Development Cooperation Goals ......................................................................................50
3.4.1 Climate Protection .................................................................................................................50
3.4.2 Energy Security ........................................................................................................................51
3.5 Contribution of Co- and Trigeneration to National Goals in
Developing Countries ......................................................................................................................52
3.5.1 National Energy Systems .....................................................................................................52
3.5.2 Balance of Payments and Economic Development ................................................52
3.6 Prerequisites to Harnessing Co- and Trigeneration Benefits .......................................54
3.7 Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................................54
4 Determinants for the Application of Co- and Trigeneration ...........................................58
4.1 Determinants of Co- and Trigeneration at the National Level ..................................58
4.1.1 Potential ........................................................................................................................................58
4.1.2 Policy Environment ................................................................................................................62
4.1.3 Regulatory Environment .....................................................................................................64
4.1.4 Institutional Framework ......................................................................................................64
4.1.5 Availability of Skills ................................................................................................................65
4.1.6 Value of Capacity to the Electricity System ...............................................................66
4.1.7 Incentive Schemes ..................................................................................................................67
4.1.8 Capital Subsidies ......................................................................................................................69
4.1.9 Financing Co-/Trigeneration Investments .................................................................69
4.2 Determinants of Successful Co- and Trigeneration Projects .......................................70
4.2.1 Infrastructure ............................................................................................................................70
4.2.2 Availability of Fuel and Technology ..............................................................................71
4.2.3 Own Use and Export of Electricity (Willing Buyer) ...............................................72
4.2.4 Design Philosophies for Projects ......................................................................................73
4.2.5 Costs ...............................................................................................................................................75
4.2.5.1 Costs of Cogen Units ...........................................................................................................75
4.2.5.2 Costs of Cogen Projects .....................................................................................................76
4.2.5.3 Transaction Costs and Project Implementation Costs ......................................80
4.2.6 Financing and Promotion Schemes on Project Level ...........................................80
4.2.7 ESCos and Contracting .........................................................................................................81
4.2.8 Economic Analysis of Projects ..........................................................................................82
4.2.9 Investment Risks ......................................................................................................................83
5 Recommendations on the Promotion of Co- and Trigeneration ...................................86
5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................86
5.2 Energy Policy and Sector Framework Conditions ............................................................86
5.3 Incentive Schemes ..............................................................................................................................87
5.4 Human Capacity Development ...................................................................................................89
5.5 Awareness-Raising and Demonstration ..................................................................................91
5.5.1 Awareness-Raising .................................................................................................................91
5.5.2 Development of Demonstration Projects ....................................................................92

Tables & Figures
Table 1 Structure of the Co- and Trigeneration Guide ..........................................................15
Table 2 Case Studies Overview ..........................................................................................................18
Table 3 Types of Fuel per Cogeneration Technology, Application and Sector ...........22
Table 4 Biogas Yield from Different Types of Feedstock .....................................................36
Table 5 Types of Thermal Energy Storage System ..................................................................39
Table 6 Overview of Cogeneration Features per Application Segment .......................42
Table 7 Obstacles and their Mitigation ..........................................................................................54
Table 8 Industry-Specific Heat Demand and Energy Indicators ......................................59
Table 9 Industry-Specific Cooling Demand ................................................................................60
Table 10 Types of Fuel per Cogeneration Technology, Application and Sector ...........65
Table 11 Skills Needs of Stakeholder Groups ................................................................................66
Table 12 Incentive Schemes for Co-/ Trigeneration ..................................................................68
Table 13 Different Approaches to Funding Co-/Trigeneration Incentive Schemes .....70
Table 14 Distribution of Cost Components of Gas Engines per Capacity ......................76
Table 15 Target Groups and HCD Issues ..........................................................................................90
Figure 1 Pearl Street Power Station, New York City, U.S., in 1882 .....................................19
Figure 2 Typical Applications for Cogen Technology ...............................................................20
Figure 3 Separate Heat and Power Production vs. Cogeneration ......................................21
Figure 4 Types of Fuel, Technology and Energy Conversion Process for Cogen .......22
Figure 5 Cogen Capacity Range per Technology (MWel
) ........................................................23
Figure 6 Elements of a Trigeneration System (using Absorption Technology) ...........24
Figure 7 Absorption Process .................................................................................................................25
Figure 8 Adsorption Process ................................................................................................................26
Figure 9 Principle of Cogen with Gas Engines ............................................................................27
Figure 10 Gas Engines from Small to Large Scale ........................................................................28
Figure 11 Cogen with Steam Turbines ...............................................................................................29
Figure 12 Steam Turbine Cycle Performance .................................................................................30
Figure 13 ORC Principle of Power Generation from Waste Heat using
Different Sources .....................................................................................................................31
Figure 14 Industrial 2 MW
el
ORC Unit ..............................................................................................32
Figure 15 Principle of a District Cooling (or Heating) Network System ..........................38
Figure 16 Thermal Storage Tanks ........................................................................................................40
Figure 17 Capacity and Electric Efficiency of Industrial Cogen Technologies .............41
Figure 18 G8 + G5 Countries: CHP Potentials under an Accelerated CHP Scenario,
2015 and 2030 .............................................................................................................................49
Figure 19 Current and Projected CHP Capacities under an Accelerated
CHP Scenario, 2015 and 2030 ............................................................................................50
Figure 20 Process Steps of a Heat-Driven Cogen Design ...........................................................73
Figure 21 Example of a Multi-Unit Cogen Design .......................................................................74
Figure 22 Cost Degression of Natural Gas-fired CHP Engines ..............................................75
Figure 23 Typical Cost Structure for Investment in a Cogen Project .................................77
Figure 24 Industrial Electricity and Natural Gas Prices in Germany ................................78
Figure 25 Schematic Overview of an Energy Supply ESC Model .........................................81
Figure 1A Framework of Cogen Promotion Policy in Germany .........................................125

Annexes
ANNEX 1 Case Study Projects .................................................................................................................97
ANNEX 2 Co- and Trigeneration Determinant Mapping and Checklist ........................109
ANNEX 3 International Cogeneration Policy Practice ............................................................119
ANNEX 4 Questionnaire .........................................................................................................................133
Link Lists – Cogen Technologies ............................................................................................................136
Literature and References ..........................................................................................................................138
List of References forANNEX 3.................................................................................................................142